Textile dyeing and textile wastewater treatment

Textile dyeing and textile wastewater treatment Advances In Textile Dyeing And Textile Wastewater Treatment Using Advanced Oxidation And Membrane Filtration Technologies: A Review Introduction The textile industry is a diverse sector in terms of production of raw materials, operating processes, product development, and equipment. The industry is well-characterized for consuming large amounts of water, energy, and discharging high volumes of waste in to public sewage treatment plants (STP). The main sources of pollution in the textile sector are derived from operating processes such as dyeing and finishing mills. These processes use considerable levels of water (ex. 70-150L for 1kg of cotton), chemicals (salts, alkali, wetting agents, etc.), and dyestuffs (e.g. reactive dyes) to achieve the desired properties of the textile product of which contribute to the pollution load in the industry. Major pollutants of environmental concern in textile wastewater include toxic organic compounds, color, suspended solids, and biochemical/chemical oxygen demand (BOD5/COD). The disposal of textile effluent in the municipal STP is an environmental concern because these industrial pollutant s may pass through unchanged and enter the receiving rivers or streams potentially harming the welfare of aquatic life. The adverse effect of these pollutants on the aquatic environment include depletion levels in dissolved oxygen, reduction in photosynthetic activity, and increase susceptibility for organisms to acids and bases. Effluent treatment technologies proposed in literature include activated sludge, coagulation, ozone, electrochemical oxidation and membrane filtration technologies . Conventional treatment methods such as coagulation and activated sludge have been used to manage textile wastewater to governmental standards for discharging in sewage treatment plants however these processes are ineffective for removing color from wastewater. Advanced oxidation processes such as electrochemical oxidation and ozone are alternative applications to effectively remove color and toxic organic compounds however some disadvantages include operating costs and possible production of chlorinated organic by-products in the receiving waters. Membrane filtration processes such as nanofiltration and reverse osmosis are promising technologies for an ecological friendly approach to treating textile effluent for reuse since it consumes less water and energy. The aim of this review paper is to describe two novel methods for reducing pollution load in textile dyeing of cellulose fabrics. The first method is the use of cationic reagents as a pretreatment for cotton fibers to enhance dye fixation and the second method uses supercritical carbon dioxide (CO2) to replace water as a dye transfer medium. An overview on textile dyes, dye fixation, and dyeing process will be discussed. Furthermore, effluent treatment technologies such as coagulation, advanced oxidation processes (electrochemical oxidation and ozone) and membrane filtration technologies (nanofiltration and reverse osmosis) in which the mechanism and evaluated as promising applications for treating effluent water to be reuse in textile wet processing operations such as dyeing. Textile Dyes And Dye Fixation Dyes are described as colored substances with complex chemical structures and high molecular weights. By definition the color arises from the attachment of the auxochrome to the chromophore (light absorbing group) of the dyes that alters both the wavelength and intensity of absorption. Dyes manufactured for clothes makers are designed to have good light stability and chemical resistance to degradation, however due to the high solubility of dyes in water biological treatments are ineffective in removing color from the effluent. Wash fastness is an important factor to weigh into consideration when determining the durability of the product. It is dependent on the covalent bond strength between the fiber and dye against alkaline and acid hydrolysis, and the efficient use of water to remove unreacted dye from the substrate. The degree by which dyes are fixed on to fiber and get discharged into the treatment bath after wash-off is referred to as dye fixation. The influence of dye loss is a ttributed to several factors such as the type of dye, the depth of shade, application method, and liquid ratio (water/energy consumption). Cotton and other celullosic fabrics are colored with reactive dyes because these dyes have good light stability and good wash fastness characteristics but poor dye-fixation yields (60-70%). Reactive dyes attach on the fiber via a covalent bond formation between the reactive group of the dye and the nucleophilic group in the fiber. The dye-fiber reaction is facilitated by large amounts of salt and electrolytes that reduce the charge repulsion forces between the negatively charge dye molecules and the negatively charge hydroxyl groups in the fiber as a result of the ionization of cellulose hydroxyl groups in water. However, due to the competitive reaction between the hydroxyl anions (OH-) in the alkaline bath and negatively charge dye molecules for the ionized hydroxyl groups in the cellulose fibers which are the nucleophiles for the dye-fiber reaction; approximately 40% of hydrolyzed (un-fixed) dye remains in the treatment bath at the end of dyeing process. An extensive demand for was h-off is required to achieve the desired wash fastness characteristics on the product. Textile Dyeing Before the fabric enters the dyeing process it must be properly treated to remove all natural impurities and chemical residues applied during operating processes such as fiber production, and fabric weaving and knitting. The pretreatment process includes desizing, bleaching, and mercerization of which contribute nearly fifty percent of waste pollution generated by the industry. Conventional dyeing processes use large amounts of water nearly 100L of water per 1kg of textile. Water is a â€Å"poor† medium for transferring dyes on to the fabric from an environmental point of view because of the increasing shortage of water available. Salts and alkali are added when dyeing cotton with reactive dyes in order facilitate the affinity for the dye molecules on the fiber. The treatment bath at the end of dyeing process is heavily polluted with toxic organic compounds, electrolytes, and residual of dyes of which can be expensive to recover and purify. Effluent disposal is the primary opt ion since treated water to be reuse in the industry needs to have no color, no suspended solids, low COD, and low conductivity levels. Therefore, the development of environmentally safe production methods is challenging since both the wastewater quality and quantity depend to a considerable degree on the technique used for a certain substrate (fiber). Influence Of Cationization For Dyeing Cellulose Fibers With Reactive Dyes The influence of cationization for dyeing cotton with reactive dyes enables an environmentally friendly approach to increase dye utilization, lower water and energy consumption, and reduce effluent disposal/treatment. Cationization of cotton is generally performed by introducing amino groups in the cellulose fiber through the reaction of the hydroxyl groups in the cellulose fiber and the reactive group (e.g. epoxy and 4-vinylpyridine) of the quarternary cationic agents. The pretreatment of cellulose fibers with reactive cationic agents will increase dye adsorption as a result of the columbic attraction between anionic dye molecules and nucleophiles on the substrate. The dye-fiber reaction can occur under neutral or mild acidic conditions without the use of electrolytes and therefore severe wash-off procedures can be eliminated since hydrolysis of dyes generally occurs in alkaline conditions. EPTMAC, 2,3-epoxypropyltrimethylammonium chloride, is an example of a quarternary cationic agent used in research studies to investigate the use of cationization for improving dye adsorption of cellulose with reactive dyes. Under alkaline conditions EPTMAC will react with alcohols to form ethers and thus produce a cationized fiber when it reacts with the methyl hydroxyl groups at the C6 position of the cellulose polymer. A combination of electrostatic interactions such as ion-ion or ion-dipole forces, intramolecular and intermolecular hydrogen bonds, and van der waal forces may influence the adsorption of the cationic group of the pretreatment agent to the anionic carboxylic groups in the cellulose fiber. The reaction between the reactive group of dye molecules and the amino-functional nucleophiles of the cationized fiber has been proposed by Blackburn and Burkinshaw (2003) to occur via a nucleophilic substitution mechanism or a Michael addition to a double bond. Factors that appear to influence the cationic process of dyeing fabrics include cationic reagent concentration, dye concentration, and temperature. Kanik and Hauser (2004) demonstrated that increasing the cationic reagent concentration in the pretreatment solution caused a decrease in dye penetration of the substrate suggesting that an increase in surface coloration occurred as result of the strong ionic attraction of dye molecules for the cationic charges on the fiber. Montazer et al. (2007) reported that the color strength (K/S) values for dyeing with treated cotton with cationic process were often 2-4 times better than that of dyeing via conventional methods (K/S values range from 1-4). The effect of temperature influenced the percent of total dye utilization by increasing the absorption of cationic reagent for the substrate. Subramanian et al. (2006) demonstrated that better color strength values (K/S value 12.987) and maximum total dye utilization (T value 95.1%) were obtained when 20% concentration of cationic reagent (CIBAFIX WFF), 10g/L of soda ash, and an optimal temperature of 70 ºC was used as the cationization parameters. A substantial reduction in industrial pollutants such as BOD5, COD, and total dissolved solids were determined using cationic reagent CIBAFIX WFF compared to dyeing untreated fabric by conventional methods. Blackburn and Burkinshaw (2003) reported the pretreatment of fabric via cationization reduced the level of water consumption to nearly half of that applied during the normal dyeing process ( Textile Dyeing In SuperCritical Carbon Dioxide Supercritical fluid technology is a promising application for the development of a water-free dyeing process in that it can be environmental friendly, energy saving, increase productivity, and eliminate effluent treatment and disposal. The beneficial properties of dyeing textiles in supercritical carbon dioxide (SC-CO2) are that it is expensive, non-toxic, non-flammable, CO2 can be recycled, and control in dye application rate. SC-CO2 exhibits densities and solvating powers similar to liquid solvents adding to its advantages in textile processing, since its low viscosity and rapid diffusion properties allow the dye to diffuse faster into the textile fibers. SC-CO2 has been successfully employed as a solvent system in the dyeing and finishing processes for synthetic fibers such as polyesters. In polyester dyeing, SC-CO2 penetrates inside the fibers causing them to swell thereby making the fibers accessible to the dye molecules. As the pressure is lowered the dye molecules are trapped inside the shrinking polyester fibers and no waste is generated since the dye molecules cannot be hydrolyzed and no additional energy is required to dry the fabric after dyeing [18]. Since non-polar dyes are primarily used in supercritical CO2 dyeing further development is required to enhance the dyeing of natural fibers with ionic dyes such as acid dyes or reactive dyes because the affinity of natural textiles with dyes occurs by chemical (covalent bonds) interactions or fixed by physical (van der waals) forces.20-21 Kraan et al. (2003) reported four factors that influence the role of supercritical CO2 dyeing for natural fibers â€Å"(1) dye solubility at operating pressure and temperature, (2) fiber accessibility to allow diffusion of dye molecules on substrate pores, (3) dye-fiber substantivity, and (4) the reactivity of dye with the textile.† Sawada et al. (2004) investigated the action of co-surfactant on the phase boundaries of the pentaethylene glycol n-octyl ether C8H5 reverse micelle using various kinds of alcohols and discussed he solubility of ionic dyes in the C8H5 reverse micellar system when co-surfactant density of CO2 and temperature are varied. The research strategy was to dissolve the ionic dye in a SC-CO2/reverse micellar system that involves dispersing a small quantity of water in SC-CO2 and co-surfactant suitable dye bath that contained conventional ionic dyes in SC-CO2. Alcohol, particularly 1-pentanol seems is a suitable co-surfactant to accelerate the solubilization of water in SC-CO2; it assists the formation of stable reverse micelles. Pentaethylene glycol n-octyl ether C8H5 as a surfactant is soluble in liquid and SC-CO2; the complex C8H5/CO2 system has a potential to enhance the solubility of water by an addition of co-surfactant in comparison with a typical reverse micellar system in organic media . Beltrame et al (1998) investigated the effect of polyethylene glycol as a pre-treatment of cotton fabrics in SC-CO2 and the results showed that the dye uptake was strongly increased if cotton was pretreated with PEG. PEG is able to form hydrogen bonds with cellulose chains this prevents the complete deswelling of the fibers during the SC-CO2 treatment thus maintaining to cotton the more accessible to dyeing. At the end of the treatment however when the CO2 is evacuated the dyes migrate out of the polymer in the undissolved state through the polymer pores and washing fastness is consequently very low. In order to avoid these undesired effects benzamide which is soluble in SC-CO2 is a good solvent for disperse dyes as a synergistic agent; it is able to form hydrogen bonds with cotton and PEG thus favoring dye entrapment through the partial occlusion of cellulose pores. The results yield good dye uptake, light and wet-washing fastness are good increasing the durability of the product. F ernandez Cid et al (2005) prior to dyeing the cotton it was presoaked in a solution of methanol to swell the fibers. The methanol replaces the water in the cotton and will attach the cotton hydrogen bonds. The hydrophobic part of the methanol will make diffusion of hydrophobic non-polar reactive dyes into the cotton possible. Application In Wastewater Treatments The treatment of textile wastewater for reuse in textile operations represents an ecological and economical challenge since textile effluents vary in composition due to the different chemicals or physical processes used on fabrics and machinery. Textile pollutants of environmental concern include residual dyes, color, BOD, COD, heavy metals, pH, high suspended solids, and toxic organic compounds.2 Typical effluents characterized in the textile industry and their measurements are presented in Table 1 [23]. Table 1. Effluent Characteristics of Textile Wastewater [derived from Kdasi et al., 2004] Parameters Values pH 7.0-9.0 Biochemical Oxygen Demand (mg/L) 80-6,000 Chemical Oxygen Demand (mg/L) 150-12,000 Total suspended solids (mg/L) 15-8,000 Total dissolved solids (mg/L) 2,900-3,100 Chloride (mg/L) 70-80 Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen (mg/L) 70-80 Color (Pt-Co) 50-2500 The removal of COD and BOD are important from an environmental point view since high levels can deplete the level of dissolved oxygen in receiving rivers causing an increased amount of non-biodegradable organic matter.23 Some advantages and disadvantages for the various chemical-physical treatment processes applied for cleaning wastewater is listed in table 3 (edited from babu et al). References 1. Babu, B. R.; Parande, A.K.; Raghu, S.; Kumar, T.P. Textile Technology, Cotton Textile Processing: Waste Generation and Effluent Treatment. J. Cotton Sci. 11, 141-153 (2007). 2. Savin, I.; Butnaru, R. Wastewater Characteristics in Textile Finishing Mills. Environmental Engineering and Management Journal 7, 859-864 (2008). 3. Ren, X. Development of environmental performance indicators for textile process and product. Journal of Cleaner Production 8, 473-481 (2000). 4. Hendrickx, I.; Boardman, G.D. Pollution Prevention Studies in the Textile Wet Processing Industry [Literature Review]. VPI SU Dept. of Civil Engineering, Blacksburg, VA.. Tech. Rep. NCDENR (Ref/01/00469) (May 1995). 5. Ergas, S. J.; Therriault, B. M.; Reckhow, D. A. Evaluation of Water Reuse Technologies for the Textile Industry. Journal of Environmental Engineering 132, 315-323 (2006). 6. Laing, I. G. The Impact of Effluent regulations on the dyeing industry. Rev. Prog. Coloration 21, 56-71 (1991). 7. Alinsafi, A.; da Motta, M.; Le Bonte, S.; Pons, M.N.; Benhammou, A. Effect of variability on the treatment of textile dyeing wastewater by activated sludge. Dyes and Pigments 69, 31-39 (2006). 8. Lin, S.H. and Chen, M.L.. Treatment of Textile Wastewater by Chemical Methods for Reuse. Wat. Res. 31, 868-876 (1997). 9. Canizares, P.; Martinez, F.; Jimenez, C.; Lobato, J.; Rodrigo, M.A. Coagulation and Electrocoagulation of Wastes Polluted with Dyes. Environ. Sci. Technol. 40, 6418-6424 (2006). 10. ONeill, C.; Hawkes, F. R.; Hawkes, D. L.; Lourenco, N. D.; Pinheiro, H. M.; Delee, W. Colour in textile effluents-sources, measurement, discharge consents and simulation: a review. J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol. 74, 1009-1018 (1999). 11. Kulkarni, S. V.; Blackwell, C. D.; Blackard, A. L..; Stackhouse, C. W.; Alexander, M.W.; Textile Dyes and Dyeing Equipment: Classification, Properties, and Environmental Aspects. US EPA , Research Triangle Park, NC, 1985. 12. Blackburn, R.S.; Burkinshaw, S.M. Treatment of Cellulose with Cationic, Nucleophilic Polymers to Enable Reactive Dyeing at Neutral pH withouth electrolyte addition. J. Applied Polymer Science 89, 1026-1031 (2003). 13. Fernandez Cid, M.V.; van Spronsen, J.; van der Kraan, M.; Veugelers, W.J.T.; Woerlee, G.F.; Witkamp, G.J. Excellent dye fixation on cotton dyed in supercritical carbon dioxide using flurotriazine reactive dyes. Green Chem. 7, 609-616 (2005). 14. Frazer, L. A Cleaner Way to Color Cotton. Env. Health Perspectives , 110, 252-254 (2002). 15. Montazer, M.; Malek, R.M.A.; Rahimi, A. Salt Free Reactive Dyeing of Cationized Cotton. Fibers and Polymers 8, 608-612 (2007). 16. Kanik, M. and Hauser, P.J. Printing Cationized Cotton with Direct Dyes. Textile Research Journal 74, 43-50 (2004). 17. Subramanian, M.; Kannan, S.; Gobalakrishnan, M.; Kumaravel, S.; Nithyanadan, R.; Rajashankar, K.J.; Vadicherala, T. Influence of Cationization of Cotton on Reactive Dyeing. JTATM 5, 1-16 (2006). 18. Montero, G.A.; Smith, C.B.; Hendrix, W.A.; Butcher, D.L. Supercritical Fluid Technology in Textile Processing: An Overview. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 39, 4806-4812 (2000). 19. Ozcan, A.S.; Clifford, A.A.; Bartle, K.D. Solubility of Disperse Dyes in Supercritical Carbon Dioxide. J. Chem. Eng. Data 42, 590-592 (1997). 20. kraan et al 21. Sawada, K.; Takagi, T.; Ueda, M. Solubilization of ionic dyes in supercritical carbon dioxide a basic study for dyeing fiber in non-aqueous media. Dyes and Pigments 60, 129-135 (2004). 22. Beltrame, P.L.; Castelli, A.; Selli, E.; Mossa, A.; Testa, G.; Bonfatti, A.M.; Seves, A. Dyeing of Cotton in Supercritical Carbon Dioxide. Dyes and Pigments, 39, 335-340 (1998). 23. Al-Kdasi, A.; Idris, A.; Saed, K.; Guan, C.T. Treatment of Textile Wastewater by Advanced Oxidation Processes-A Review. Global Nest: the Int.J. 6, 222-230 (2004).

Baby Boomers Essay -- essays papers

Baby Boomers During the Great Depression and World War II many Americans delayed marrying and having children because of the poor economy. The number of marriages and births soared after the war. Many older couples who had delayed having children began having them when the war ended. This increase in births among both younger and older American couples created the Baby Boom Generation. This large group of people born in the U.S. from 1946 to 1964 amounted to 76 million children. Those born during this time make up approximately 36% of today’s population (Deutsch). What impact has this had on the economy? Read on to see how the baby boom generation has affected the economy and what will happen as they retire. This generation has had a huge impact on the economy due to its sheer size. At first there was a crunch at hospital maternity wards. When the boomers reached school age, schools became overcrowded, forcing towns to build additions. By the time they were entering senior high the cities and towns were expanding. New office buildings, hotels, apartment complexes and stores were springing up everywhere. When they reached college age, American Higher Education had to expand. Large enrollments along with inflation pushed college costs higher. When they started families of their own and became homeowners it drove real estate prices up. As they passed through the life cycle, these shortages soon became surpluses. An example being the collapse of the real estate market in the late1980’s (Sullivan). We can expect a large demand for retirement housing, elder care and finally the funeral industry as the Boomers continue their life cycle. Marketers have followed the boom generation for decades, producing items that appealed to them as children, teens and young adults. With more money in their pockets than time on their hands, today’s baby boomers are dining out at an all time high. Now it is people over the age of 40 who have the resources to purchase big-ticket items. Today the engine that is driving our economy and our stock market is due to the lopsided demographics present right now. The coming of age of discretionary spending is allowing people to buy that SUV, boat, computer, etc that would have been put off in the past (Income). The economy is sensitive to the Boomer generation’s desire for a luxury lifestyle. As they look toward retiremen... ...grams for children, while a new state agency was created to represent the needs and concerns of older citizens.† (Sullivan). The baby boom generation has had a profound effect on the American economy at each stage of their life starting with the demand created for goods, then filling the labor market. Now we’ll have to wait and see if their retirement will cause the doom predicted by some or create the marketplace godsend predicted by others. Bibliography: Buchner, Gail. â€Å"Demographics is Not Destiny†. Journal of Financial Planning. Institute of Certified Financial Planners 1999. Deutsche, Alex. Topical Study #51. 10 Oct. 2001 www.yardenicom/topical.asp Generation Gap to Create Jobs Turnaround. Sydney Morning Herald 4. 10 Oct. 2001 http://www.ncpa.org/pd/economy/econ 10.html Jackson, Gerard. â€Å"Will the Baby Boomers Cure Unemployment?† TNA News with Commentary. 9 Apr 2001. Peterson, Peter G. â€Å"Gray Down: How the Coming of Age Wave Will Transform America and the World†. 1999: 189-90. Sullivan, Teresa A. â€Å"Baby Boom Generation†. Discovery Channel School. 2 Oct. 2001. http://www.discoveryschool.com/homework.help/worldbook/atozhistory/b/040930.html

Do the Writings of Clausewitz have contemporary relevance? Essay

Carl Von Clausewitz has long been considered one of the most important writers in the field of military strategy and tactics. Born in 1780 he first saw action in 1793 when he was a Lance Corporal in the Prussian Army.1 He was to serve throughout the Napoleonic wars working for both the Prussians and the Russians. However: â€Å"throughout his military career he never held a command and was probably unsuited for such. He was essentially a student of war†¦Ã¢â‚¬ 2 However, despite this lack of command, Clausewitz had certainly gained enough experience during the Napoleonic wars to have a fairly comprehensive idea about what war was: â€Å"Before he was forty, he had taken part in some of the greatest battles in the history of warfare and had seen the armies of Napoleon storm their way across Europe to Moscow†¦ Alls this had been the result of military operations, but it was clear to Clausewitz as a young man that the explanation for the success or failure of these operations was not to be sought on the battlefield alone†.3 As a result of this, during his career he came up with many ideas of views on the nature and conduct of war, writing literally thousands of pages of manuscripts on a wide range of areas ranging from politics to tactics.4 After the wars end, he set about trying to write a comprehensive eight part ‘guide’ on his ideas. This collection of essays and manuscripts became known as â€Å"Vom Kriege† (On War). Clausewitz died in 1831 having only completed six of the eight parts.5 Indeed it is important to realise that despite the importance of his work, it is still unfinished and does not cover a number of areas: â€Å"On War contains a comprehensive analysis of the strategy operations and tactics of Napoleonic War, and of their 18th Century background. Left out of the account are most technological, administrative and organisational factors†¦ On War deals almost entirely with the ultimate issues as Clausewitz saw them: Political and strategic planning and the conduct of hostilities†6 Since his death, Clausewitz’s work has come to be regarded as probably one of the most important works on military thinking ever written. Bernard Brodie once wrote that: â€Å"His is not simply the greatest, but the only great book about war†7 Although Clausewitz is still seen as one of the greatest thinkers on war, the question remains – is he still relevant today? Given the immense changes in not only the way we conduct war, but also our attitudes towards war, does his thinking still have any relevance in an era of information warfare and peacekeeping missions? Also given the dramatic changes in the conduct of warfare are his works still important: â€Å"As one US army general has (said) â€Å"the digitisation of the battlefield means the end of Clausewitz†8 Given the large size of Clausewitz’s work it is impossible look at the whole of On War for its continuing relevance. Instead for this essay I have chosen to examine a number of ideas in detail including the idea of war as part of policy, the notion of decisive battle and also his idea of a ‘centre of gravity’. Due to lack of space I have decided not focus on other areas such as the trinity between the politicians, the people and the armed forces, as well as looking at other areas. At it’s simplest Clausewitz’s first book attempts to understand what war actually is and what it does. At it’s simplest he defined it as: â€Å"War is an act of force to compel an enemy to do our will†9 This seems to be true, even today it is hard to imagine a nation state going to war without a rational reason to do so – be it to regain territory or to right a wrong. More recently the growth of Peace enforcement operations such as the war in Kosovo is a classic example of forcing a nation state to bow to the will of others. As such it seems that Clausewitz’s most simple definition still rings true today Clausewitz’s next statement is far more controversial though: â€Å"Kind hearted people might of course think there was some ingenious way to disarm or defeat an enemy without too much bloodshed, and might imagine this is the true goal of the art of war. Pleasant as it sounds, it is a fallacy that must be exposed: War is such a dangerous business that the mistakes which come from kindness are the very worst†10 The above paragraph seems to be aimed at those who have studied the writings of Sun Tzu – the Chinese strategist to which Clausewitz is frequently compared. Sun Tzu felt that war was not about bloodshed – instead he felt that: â€Å"all warfare is based on deception†¦Ã¢â‚¬ 11 Michael Handle wrote that â€Å"Sun Tzu devotes considerable attention to the actions that precede war†¦ for him diplomacy is the best means of achieving his ideal of victory without fighting or bloodshed†.12 It seems that Sun Tzu’s theory of warfare is based more on the notion of avoidance of war rather than the fighting of war itself, whereas Clausewitz feels that war occurs once all other policy choices have been exhausted: â€Å"War is merely the continuation of policy by other means†13 This seems to suggest that in Clausewitz’s mind, War should be seen as merely as a logical progression in policy once other policies such as diplomacy have failed – essentially war is pursued in order to further a States national interest. However some question whether this is still the case: â€Å"Future war will be fought not to pursue national interests, but to kill enemy leaders, to convert opponents to one’s religion, to obtain booty, or sometimes for simple entertainment. Thus the core of Clausewitz’s .philosophy of war – that states wage war using armies in pursuit of political objectives will disappear. Others have maintained that nuclear weaponry, trans-national constabulary warfare, counter-terrorism, counter-narcotrafficking†¦ have rendered obsolete Clausewitz’s definition of war as an act of policy†.14 I believe though that his views are still relevant, in that once a war has begun it should be fought aggressively until its logical conclusion, however unlike in Clausewitz’s time, today the conditions required for victory may be very different and as such it may be harder to achieve a logical conclusion.15 Clausewitz seems more focussed on the idea that the only means of resolving a war is bloodshed (the so called idea of decisive battle) â€Å"The destruction of the enemies forces in war must always be the dominant consideration†16 While this may have been the ideal way of winning wars in the 19th Century it is arguable that in today’s world this view is obsolete for a variety of reasons. Firstly in the 19th Century the only real way of waging war was through lining up two opposing armies and fighting it out until one side one. This procedure was repeated until one country won the war. In today’s world the methods available to fight wars have changed – in place of armies, generals can use precision strikes with guided missiles fired from thousands of miles away to eliminate enemy units with minimal casualties. Special forces units can be used to eliminate key figures and deprive armies of leadership at critical times17. However the main reason why Clausewitz’s views of the objectives in warfare could be seen as obsolete is due to the changing nature of warfare itself. When On War was written, war was a two dimensional affair – fought primarily on land and sea.18 In 2001 though war can be fought on land, sea, air, space and also in cyberspace. In addition there are a wide variety of unconventional types of wars to be fought. As James Adams notes: â€Å"Today we are at war on several fronts. The fights against terrorism, organized crime, economic espionage and weapons proliferation are permanent conflicts that are likely to confront us through the next century†¦ In this new world the soldier will be the young geek in uniform who can insert a virus into Tehran’s electricity supply to plunge the city into darkness†19 There have been suggestions that since 1990 the world (or at least the West) has undergone a so called Revolution in Military Affairs – i.e. a total change in the way that war is fought. Given this, is the idea of decisive battle still relevant? Some institutions clearly feel that it is not – especially as the types of wars that will be fought are so different: â€Å"ironically the dominance that the US will gain from the RMA†¦ will be such that the nature of future conflict will force competitors to deliver asymmetric strategies, including weapons of mass destruction, to counter the US superiority.20 In these new types of conflicts, the search for Clausewitzian decisive victory will be far more elusive and far less relevant than in conventional conflicts†.21 Despite the above quote, I believe that the idea is still relevant – but that the methods that can be used to bring about a decisive victory have changed. As has been seen an enemy can be defeated without using conventional ground troops at all – instead a wide range of different assets could be used. Indeed one view of future warfare suggests that victory (but not necessarily destruction) over an enemy force could be achieved without the use of weapons: â€Å"First a computer virus is inserted into the aggressors telephone switching stations, bringing about a total failure of the phone system. Next computer logic bombs set to activate at certain times, destroy the electronic routers that control rail lines and military convoys†¦ meanwhile enemy field officers obey the orders they receive over the radios unaware that the commands are phoney†¦ US planes, specially outfitted for psychological operations, then jam the enemy’s TV broadcasts with propaganda messages that turn the populace against the ruler. When the despot boots up his PC, he finds that millions of dollars he has hoarded in his Swiss bank account have been zeroed out. Zapped. All without firing a shot†22 This example is quite interesting as it simultaneously supports the relevance of Clausewitz, while at the same time proving how his writings have become dated in places It supports the notion of decisive victory in that it shows how a country can conclusively defeat an enemy – thus supporting his idea of decisive victory. But at the same time it shows clearly that not all of Clausewitz is still relevant. For example Clausewitz seemed cynical about the idea of achieving victory without much (or any) violence: â€Å"How are we to counter the highly sophisticated theory that supposes it is possible for a particularly ingenious method of inflicting minor direct damage on the enemy’s forces to lead to major indirect destruction; or that claims to produce by means of limited but skilfully applied blows, such paralysis of the enemy’s forces and control of his willpower as to constitute a significant shortcut to victory†23 This argument clearly shows that not all of Clausewitz has aged well – obviously during the Napoleonic era the idea of information warfare did not exist – so it would have been next to impossible to win a war using non violent means – however as has been shown in this age it is at least technically possible to achieve such a victory. It suggests that some parts of Clausewitz’s work should perhaps be seen as less relevant to certain situations than others. One area which appears to still be relevant is Clausewitz’s comments on the application of force. In the West today public opinion seems to favour engagements with minimal casualties – the public seem to want intervention when scenes of suffering are on TV (the so called CNN effect), but at the same time seem unwilling to tolerate the idea of people dying to stop the suffering24. This is a situation where Clausewitz noted that: â€Å"If one side uses force without compunction, undeterred by the bloodshed it involves while the other side refrain, the first will gain the upper hand†.25 This idea seems to have been taken onboard by a number of third world leaders who have engaged in some form of conflict with Western Countries (primarily the USA). A good example of this is the conflicts in Somalia – when the USA sent in troops to help restore order to the country they were hampered by restrictive rules of engagement and limited amounts of equipment – for example tanks as these were felt inappropriate. 26On the other hand, the opposition led by self styled Warlord General Aideed had no such restrictions – and it showed – he was repeatedly able to gain the upper hand and when US/UN troops attempted to capture him he was able to ambush and kill literally dozens of them.27 The images of American bodies being abused were enough to force an immediate and humiliating withdrawal from Somalia – a classic Clausewitzian example of one side using force when the other was unwilling and gaining the advantage – in this case over the strongest power in the world. This lesson illustrates an area where Clausewitz’s views on war are still highly relevant – indeed it appears that other countries learnt from this experience – in Haiti for example when the US sent a landing ship into the country to enforce a UN brokered peace agreement in 1994 they were met by a bunch of thugs who: â€Å"shook their fists, waved placards and shouted threats at the US ship. They were hooligans who would have dispersed at the first sign of well armed troops. But among their slogans was one in particular â€Å"we are going to turn this place into another Somalia†. News of the ‘Welcome Party’ and its curses were flashed to Washington where it provoked a panic†¦. The Clinton administration immediately ordered the (USS) Harlan County to withdraw from Haitian waters and to sail back to the USA†28 Again this is another good example of how even the threat to employ violence against a country which is not prepared to do so can have a major influence out of all proportion to the size of the protestors. It also demonstrates the continuing influence of Clausewitzian ideas. The example used above of the American experience in Somalia and Haiti is also relevant to Clausewitz’s ideas on ‘The centre of gravity’ – an idea which Clausewitz defined as follows: â€Å"What the theorist has to say here is this: one must keep the dominant characteristics of both belligerents in mind. Out of those characteristics a certain centre of gravity develops, the hub of all power and movement on which everything depends. That is the point at which all our energies should be directed†29 Furthermore Clausewitz identified three key components of this idea: â€Å"The Opponents army, his capital and, if he had a stronger protector the army of his ally. Since all of these were vulnerable to attack, said Clausewitz, ‘the defeat and destruction of his fighting force remains the best way to begin, and will in any case be a very significant feature of the campaign'†30 A good example of this would be the case of the Royal Navy during the Falklands War – Argentina identified the carriers as the centre of gravity for the UK operation and spent a good deal of time trying to sink them. As the commander of the Task Force noted: â€Å"If they hit Hermes or Invincible the Royal Navy will somehow be publicly disgraced†¦Worse yet, the British military will become the laughing stock of the world, limping home in defeat. John Bull humbled at last. At sea.†31 Although Clausewitz did not write on maritime warfare this is a clear example of how important the destruction of a naval fighting component can be to the success of a war. Other good examples of a country identifying and targeting the centre of gravity include Iraq’s use of Scud missiles against Israel during the Gulf war – had Israel responded militarily then it is likely that the coalition against Iraq would have collapsed as it seems doubtful that Arab powers such as Egypt and Syria would willingly fight on the same side as Israel. This supports Clausewitz’s ideas of attacking the armies (or at least cities) of allies to win the war. 32 For the coalition however attacking and destroying the Iraqi army (primarily the Republican Guard) was of vital importance – not only as knocking it out would win the war – but also destroying the Republican Guard would remove Saddam Hussein’s power base and hopefully make it impossible for him to remain as leader of Iraq. The Gulf War is a good example then of Clausewitz’s ideas continuing to be highly relevant to the planning of a military campaign. However some commentators (QUOTE!!) feel that the Gulf War was probably the last large conventional war to be fought by the West and that the nature of war in the future has changed. I believe then that the centre of gravity idea is still highly relevant – however I feel that it has become more refined since Clausewitz’s time. Although Clausewitz feels that there are only three key areas to which it applies, I feel that today the centre of gravity can be practically anything. For example in Somalia and Haiti – the use of force and the threat to use force proved the Americans centre – when faced with even the possibility of casualties, the Americans withdrew. This suggests that today the centre of gravity can be anything from a capital city to a single infantryman – who if killed could cause a change in policy. Another change is that Clausewitz assumed that the centre of gravity would be identical for both sides – whereas today that is not the case – a good example is that of the asymmetric warfare that is being waged between the USA and the terrorist Osama Bin Laden – he recognised the Pentagon and World Trade Centre as key examples of American power and prestige and saw them as their centre of gravity in any terrorist action. The Americans on the other hand see Bin Laden as the key centre of gravity – The most powerful country on earth is fighting a war, with a single man as their key target. This is a dramatic change from the days of mass warfare which Clausewitz was used to, and demonstrates not only the rapidly changing nature of warfare, but also illustrates the way that Clausewitz’s ideas can continue to be adapted to look at warfare in the present day. During this essay I have looked at a number of Clausewitz’s ideas in an attempt to see whether they have continuing relevance in a world where warfare is very different from the time when On War was written. By and large I feel that Clausewitz’s ideas are still relevant – or at least able to be adapted into the present day. Where he is not so relevant is more due to the development of weapons and styles of warfare that he could not have possibly been aware of, rather than through any fault of his own. I feel that the following quote sums up nicely the relevance of Clausewitz to this day: â€Å"Of course not all of Clausewitz’s military thought has remained relevant. His vision of war did not include its economic, air, sea and space dimensions for example. But his concept of war†¦will remain valid as long as states, drug lords, warrior clans and terrorist groups have mind to wage it†33 1 Information taken from On War, p5, Carl Von Clausewitz, (edited by Michael Howard & Peter Paret), 1984, Princeton University Press. 2 The Conduct of War 1789-1961, Chapter 4, p59. Major General J.F.C.Fuller, 1972 Methuen 3 Clausewitz, Michael Howard, p11, 1983, Oxford University Press. 4 Information taken from On War, p5, Carl Von Clausewitz, (edited by Michael Howard & Peter Paret), 1984, Princeton University Press 5 Indeed there is evidence to suggest that by 1827 he considered only the first chapter of book one to be complete – the remainder needing revision. Source The Conduct of War 1789-1961, Chapter 4, p59. Major General J.F.C.Fuller, 1972 Methuen 6 Makers of Modern Strategy, p208, Oxford University Press, 2000 edition. 7 Clausewitz, Michael Howard, p01, 1983, Oxford University Press. 8 Quote taken from www.gov.au/lwsc/publications/CA%eEssays/RMA 9 On War, p75, Carl Von Clausewitz, (edited by Michael Howard & Peter Paret), 1984, Princeton University Press 10 On War, p75, Carl Von Clausewitz, (edited by Michael Howard & Peter Paret), 1984, Princeton University Press 11 Sun Tzu’s art of War, The modern Chinese interpretation, p95 General Tao Hanzhang, 1987, David and Charles 12 Masters of War, Sun Tzu, Clausewitz and Jomini, p32, Michael I.Handel 1992, Frank Cass 13 On War, p87, Carl Von Clausewitz, (edited by Michael Howard & Peter Paret), 1984, Princeton University Press 14 Quote taken from www.Clausewitz.com, however text is from an article originally published in Joint Forces Quarterly, Winter 1995-1996 which is reproduced on the website. 15 For example – what are the current victory objectives in the campaign in Afghanistan and how will we know when victory has been achieved? 16 On War, p230, Carl Von Clausewitz, (edited by Michael Howard & Peter Paret), 1984, Princeton University Press 17 For example the possible attempts at the time of writing by US/UK special forces to capture or eliminate Osama Bin Laden. 18 Even then Clausewitz did not attempt to write on maritime operations – concentrating solely on land warfare. 19 The Next World War,p14, James Adams, 1998 Hutchinson. 20 A good example of this prediction was seen with the terrorist attack on the 11th of September. 21 Quote taken from www.gov.au/lwsc/publications/CA%eEssays/RMA 22 Flashpoint World War Three, p153-154, Andrew Murray, 1997, Pluto Press 23 On War, p228, Carl Von Clausewitz, (edited by Michael Howard & Peter Paret), 1984, Princeton University Press 24 Given the current situation in the USA it will be interesting to see whether the so called ‘body bag’ syndrome has ended or whether once US troops are killed, public opinion will change to demand a more peaceful solution. 25 On War, p75-76, Carl Von Clausewitz, (edited by Michael Howard & Peter Paret), 1984, Princeton University Press 26 Information taken from Deliver us From Evil, (Chapter 4), William Shawcross,2000, Bloomsbury. 27 Total American losses in Somalia were 30 dead, 175 wounded, the UN lost 72 killed and 87 wounded (Source World Conflicts, Patrick Brogan, 1998, Bloomsbury) 28 Deliver us from evil, p103, William Shawcross, 2000 Bloomsbury. 29 On War, p596, Carl Von Clausewitz, (edited by Michael Howard & Peter Paret), 1984, Princeton University Press 30 Clausewitz, Michael Howard, p39, 1983, Oxford University Press. (Professor Howard incorporates a quote from On War, p596, Carl Von Clausewitz, (edited by Michael Howard & Peter Paret), 1984, Princeton University Press) 31 One Hundred Days, p100, Admiral Sandy Woodward, 1992, Harper Collins 32 However – given the overwhelming amount of Western military power in the region and the political willpower to fight the war, it seems likely that Iraq would still have lost the war – whether Israel was a centre of gravity in the sense that it could remove the coalition from the war seems dubious. 33 Quote taken from www.Clausewitz.com, however text is from an article originally published in Joint Forces Quarterly, Winter 1995-1996 which is reproduced on the website.

Christianity and Islam - 763 Words

In a world of mystery and unanswered questions, religion steps up to the plate to give people hope and explanation for our unanswered questions. Religion has been around for centuries, there is not an exact number of how many religions exist, but it is closely estimated to be over 4,200. Christianity and Islam are the two largest religions in the world and though they have many similarities, they also have vast differences. Unfortunately it is hard to say or believe if they will ever reconcile because of their differences. Inherited from Judaism, Islam and Christianity are beliefs that believe that God created the world and cares about the behavior and beliefs of human beings. There is no coincidence that the two largest†¦show more content†¦These conflicts are mostly generated because of some differences within their religion. Though both are Monotheistic, Christians believe in the Trinity, where as Muslims believe God is indivisible. Christians believe that as a member of the Trinity, Jesus is the Son of God. Muslims believe that Jesus was conceived by an act of God and though not the Son of God, he is like Muhammad, a highly respected Prophet. Their difference can also be found within the origin of how life began, ultimately changing the end result of both religions. Christians believe Adam is guilty of disobeying God and that we all bear this Original Sin when we are born. We can be saved from this, and other sins, through accepting Jesus Christs atonement. Christians believe that Jesus was crucified on a cross to atone for mans sins. Muslims on the other hand, believe Adam was faultless (some refer to him as a Prophet). They believe Jesus did not die on the cross and consequently there is no atonement. Muslims believe that each person is born sin-less and must take responsibility for maintaining this state throughout life. Even how the government is run, differences are found. Secular law and morality are separate in Christian countries and they h ave secular governments. Islam considers law and morality are synonymous; the law is based on their moral code and politics are governed by the religion. Their even have differences in what they eat. Christians have a more relaxed view about whatShow MoreRelatedIslam And Christianity : Christianity And Islam1684 Words   |  7 PagesProfessor Slattery World Religions November 11, 2014 Islam and Christianity There are 7 billion people living all around the world. Everybody has grown up enriched in different cultures, beliefs, traditions, and social standings. Each person, with their own developed views of the world, following a religion such as Christianity and Islam or specifically choosing not to follow a religion, even have many similarities. Christianity and Islam, both, follow by a sacred book of their God’s word althoughRead MoreChristianity And Islam : Islam1317 Words   |  6 PagesChristianity and Islam in Premodern Africa Christianity and Islam date back to a time long before the modern era and both have sizable similarities between the two religions. Many of these similarities can be simplified into three subjects; both have books comprised of holy texts written about events taking place during their prophet’s life, both are believed to have started with God appointed leaders, and both consist of different divisions within their religion. Christianity starting with theRead MoreChristianity And Islam : Islam937 Words   |  4 Pagesâ€Å"CHRISTIANITY AND ISLAM.† Christianity and Islam are the two largest religions in the world, with over 2 billion Christian, and 1.5 billion Muslim followers. Christianity was founded by Jesus Christ approximately 2000 years ago in Palestine. 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This concept is explored in the rest of this work through critically accessing Christian and Muslim views on the question of origin, identity, meaning and purpose, morality, and destiny. Islam and Christianity are in agreement that the origin of both living things and man were created by God himself. TheRead MoreJudaism, Christianity, And Islam992 Words   |  4 PagesJudaism, Christianity and Islam are three of the most recognized monotheistic religions worldwide. These religions are often referred to as the Abrahamic religions because of their history to the founding father, Abraham. Judaism, Christianity and Islam are closely related with varying differences. Christianity was born from within the Jewish tradition, and Islam developed from both Christianity and Judaism. 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Christianity is the largest religion in the world with 2 billion followers and are called Christians. Islam is the second largest religion in the world with 1.3 billion followers. They are called Muslims, which means â€Å"oneRead MoreChristianity, Islam, And Judaism1636 Words   |  7 PagesChristianity, Islam, and Judaism All three religions believe and worship the same God but they do it in different ways. Judaism happens to be the oldest religion today but they don’t have an official creed. They aim to teach you about God, the Messiah, human beings, and the universe which makes Jewish beliefs very important to them. But it is important to understand that being Jewish is more of a race and culture than it is a religion. Some Jewish people may have no interest in Judaism. Judaism has